Lecture IV - Handling Data in more than one Dimension

Programming with Python

Dr. Tobias Vlćek

Kühne Logistics University Hamburg - Fall 2026

Seventeen variables and counting

The menu started with two dishes. Tobi tracked them in variables: price1, price2. Then came price3, a price_final, and, after a rough Tuesday, a price_final_FINAL2.

Seventeen variables for one menu. Add a dish and you touch seventeen lines. Today the data gets structure: one name that holds many values, and a way to look things up by name instead of by counting.

Warm-up

Question 1

Three questions from Episode 3.

def announce(item):
    print(f"Fresh today: {item}")

result = announce("Mate")
print(result)

The second print shows what?

a) Fresh today: Mate b) Error c) None

Answer 1

def announce(item):
    print(f"Fresh today: {item}")

result = announce("Mate")
print(result)

Fresh today: Mate
None

c) None: announce has no return, so it hands back None. Printing something is not the same as returning it.

Question 2

def restock(n):
    n = n + 10
    return n

stock = 5
restock(stock)
print(stock)

a) 5 b) 15 c) Error

Answer 2

def restock(n):
    n = n + 10
    return n

stock = 5
restock(stock)
print(stock)

a) 5. n = n + 10 points the function’s own name n at a new number, so the global stock never moves. We never caught the result. To keep a result, assign it back.

Question 3

class Order:
    def __init__(self, item, qty, price):
        self.item = item
        self.qty = qty
        self.price = price

    def total(self):
        return self.qty * self.price

print(Order("Wrap", 2, 6.90).total())

a) 6.9 b) 13.8 c) 2

Answer 3

class Order:
    def __init__(self, item, qty, price):
        self.item = item
        self.qty = qty
        self.price = price

    def total(self):
        return self.qty * self.price

print(Order("Wrap", 2, 6.90).total())

13.8

b) 13.8. total() multiplies qty by price: 2 * 6.90, and print shows a float without the trailing zero. The object carries its own data, the method does the arithmetic.

Lists & Tuples

One name for many values

A list holds many values under one name, in order. That’s the cure for seventeen variables:

drinks = ["Mate", "Spezi", "Ayran"]
print(drinks)

['Mate', 'Spezi', 'Ayran']

Square brackets [], items separated by commas. Add a drink tomorrow and the list just grows. No new variable names.

Reaching in by position

Each item has an index. Python counts from 0:

drinks = ["Mate", "Spezi", "Ayran"]
print(drinks[0])   # the first item
print(drinks[2])   # the third item

Mate
Ayran

The first item is drinks[0], not drinks[1]. Off-by-one is a classic mistake of students.

Counting from the end

A negative index counts backwards from the end, no need to know the length:

drinks = ["Mate", "Spezi", "Ayran"]
print(drinks[-1])   # last item
print(drinks[-2])   # second to last

Ayran
Spezi

-1 is always the last item. Useful for getting “the most recent order”.

Slicing: a range of items

A slice list[start:stop] returns a new list, from start up to, but not including, stop:

drinks = ["Mate", "Spezi", "Ayran"]
print(drinks[0:2])   # items 0 and 1
print(drinks[-2:])   # the last two: negative start, open end

['Mate', 'Spezi']
['Spezi', 'Ayran']

The stop index is left out. drinks[0:2] gives you two items, not three. And leaving a side empty means “all the way”: drinks[-2:] starts two from the end and runs to the finish.

Predict: where does the slice stop?

A courier carries four cup sizes. What does this print?

sizes = ["S", "M", "L", "XL"]
print(sizes[1:3])

a) ['M', 'L', 'XL'] b) ['M', 'L'] c) ['S', 'M', 'L']

Predict. Pick a letter, then I reveal the answer.

Answer: the `stop` index is excluded

sizes = ["S", "M", "L", "XL"]
print(sizes[1:3])

['M', 'L']

b) ['M', 'L']. The slice starts at index 1 ("M") and stops before index 3, so index 3 ("XL") is never included. A slice from 1:3 gives you exactly 3 - 1 = 2 items.

Your turn

Open the exercise

Scan the QR or type the link:

python.tobiasvlcek.com/notebooks/ex_04_a/

QR code linking to the online notebook for exercise 4a, the same address as the link above.

Any questions? Let me know!

Growing a list

Lists are mutable: you can change them after creation. .append() adds one item to the end; + joins two lists into a new one:

drinks = ["Mate", "Spezi"]
drinks.append("Ayran")
print(drinks)

combined = ["Mate"] + ["Kombucha"]
print(combined)

['Mate', 'Spezi', 'Ayran']
['Mate', 'Kombucha']

.append() changes the list itself, and every name pointing at it sees that; + builds a fresh one. = never changes a list: it only points a name at one.

Predict: the second name

Tobi wants a winter copy of the drinks list to experiment on. What does the last line print?

summer = ["Mate", "Spezi"]
winter = summer
winter.append("Ayran")
print(summer)

a) ['Mate', 'Spezi'] b) ['Ayran', 'Mate', 'Spezi'] c) ['Mate', 'Spezi', 'Ayran']

Predict. Pick a letter, then I reveal the answer.

Answer: two names, one list

summer = ["Mate", "Spezi"]
winter = summer
winter.append("Ayran")
print(summer)

['Mate', 'Spezi', 'Ayran']

c) ['Mate', 'Spezi', 'Ayran']. winter = summer does not copy anything: both names point at the same list, so .append() through one name shows up under the other. A real copy is list(summer) or summer[:] (a slice with both ends open, so all of it).

How long is it?

len() tells you how many items a list holds:

drinks = ["Mate", "Spezi", "Ayran"]
print(len(drinks))

len() also works on strings (letters) and, soon, on dictionaries (keys).

Looping over positions

A loop over the list hands you each item. Sometimes you need to know where an item sits. Then loop over the positions instead:

drinks = ["Mate", "Spezi", "Ayran"]
for i in range(len(drinks)):
    print(i, drinks[i])

0 Mate
1 Spezi
2 Ayran

range(len(drinks)) counts 0, 1, 2: one number per position, and drinks[i] is the item that sits there.

Tuples: fixed-length records

A tuple looks like a list but uses () and cannot be changed, perfect for a record whose shape never varies, like opening hours (hour, minute):

opening = (9, 0)   # 9:00 sharp
print(opening[0])
print(opening[1])

hour, minute = opening   # unpack: one name per slot
print(hour, minute)

9
0
9 0

Indexing and slicing work exactly as on lists. You just can’t .append() to a tuple.

Your turn

Open the exercise

Scan the QR or type the link:

python.tobiasvlcek.com/notebooks/ex_04_b/

QR code linking to the online notebook for exercise 4b, the same address as the link above.

Any questions? Let me know!

Dictionaries & Sets

Look things up by name

A list finds items by position. But “what does a Spezi cost?” is a question about a name, not a position. A dictionary maps a key to a value:

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20, "Ayran": 2.80}
print(prices["Spezi"])

3.2

Curly braces {}, each pair written key: value. No more remembering that Spezi lives at index 1.

Building a dictionary

Keys are usually strings; values can be anything. Read a value with square brackets and its key:

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20, "Ayran": 2.80}
print(prices["Mate"])
print(prices["Ayran"])

3.5
2.8

The same square brackets as a list, but now the thing inside is a key, not a number.

The key that isn’t there

Ask for a key that doesn’t exist and Python raises a KeyError. It stops rather than guess:

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20}
print(prices["Cola"])
# KeyError: 'Cola'

A KeyError means the key is spelled wrong or was never added. However, there is a smarter way to ask for a key.

A safer read with `.get()`

.get() returns None for a missing key instead of raising, and you can supply a fallback:

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20}
print(prices.get("Cola"))       # missing → None
print(prices.get("Cola", 0))    # missing → your fallback

None
0

Use [] when the key must be there; use .get() when it might not.

Predict: is it on the menu?

in asks whether a value is in a list: "Mate" in drinks is True. On a dictionary, what does it look at?

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20}
print("Spezi" in prices, 3.20 in prices)

a) True False b) True True c) False True

Predict. Pick a letter, then I reveal the answer.

Answer: `in` checks the keys

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20}
print("Spezi" in prices, 3.20 in prices)
print(3.20 in prices.values())

True False
True

a) True False. Membership on a dictionary looks at the keys only. 3.20 is a value, so Python says it is not there. To search the values, ask 3.20 in prices.values().

Updating and adding

Assigning to a key updates it if it exists, or adds it if it doesn’t. Work on a copy (dict()) when the original must survive:

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20}
winter = dict(prices)        # a copy: keep the original safe
winter["Spezi"] = 3.40       # update an existing key
winter["Kombucha"] = 4.20    # add a brand-new key
print(winter)
print(prices)                # untouched (the summer menu comes back in April)

{'Mate': 3.5, 'Spezi': 3.4, 'Kombucha': 4.2}
{'Mate': 3.5, 'Spezi': 3.2}

One syntax, two jobs. Python decides by whether the key is already present.

Predict: the missing drink

A customer orders a Cola. It’s not on the menu. What does this line do?

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20}
print(prices["Cola"])

a) prints None b) prints "" c) raises KeyError d) adds "Cola"

Predict. Pick a letter, then I reveal the answer.

Answer: reading with `[]`

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20}
print(prices["Cola"])

KeyError: 'Cola'

c) raises KeyError: square-bracket reads never invent a value and never add one. Reach for .get() when a key might be missing.

Sets: only the unique ones

A set keeps each value once. Feed it duplicates and they collapse. Perfect for counting distinct things, like today’s regulars:

visitors = ["nina", "tom", "nina", "ada", "tom"]
regulars = set(visitors)
print(regulars)        # order is arbitrary: a set has none
print(len(regulars))   # how many different people

{'tom', 'ada', 'nina'}
3

Five visits, three people. A set answers “how many different?”.

Can be created from a list, or with curly braces:

regulars = {"nina", "tom", "ada"}
print(regulars)

{'tom', 'ada', 'nina'}

Your turn

Open the exercise

Scan the QR or type the link:

python.tobiasvlcek.com/notebooks/ex_04_c/

QR code linking to the online notebook for exercise 4c, the same address as the link above.

Any questions? Let me know!

Nested Data

A dictionary inside a dictionary

Values can themselves be dictionaries. Each delivery zone carries its own fee and estimated time:

zones = {
    "Altstadt": {"fee": 1.50, "eta": 12},
    "Hafen": {"fee": 2.50, "eta": 20},
}
print(zones["Hafen"])

{'fee': 2.5, 'eta': 20}

One key ("Hafen") points to a whole dictionary. This is how real data grows: structures inside structures.

Reading nested values

To reach an inner value, use two keys in a row, outer first, then inner:

zones = {
    "Altstadt": {"fee": 1.50, "eta": 12},
    "Hafen": {"fee": 2.50, "eta": 20},
}
print(zones["Hafen"]["fee"])
print(zones["Altstadt"]["eta"])

2.5
12

Read it left to right: “in zones, take Hafen, then its fee.”

Your turn

Open the exercise

Scan the QR or type the link:

python.tobiasvlcek.com/notebooks/ex_04_d/

QR code linking to the online notebook for exercise 4d, the same address as the link above.

Any questions? Let me know!

From a loop to one line

You already know the loop that builds a list. A list comprehension is that same loop, written on one line:

counts = [2, 1, 3]

# the loop you know
doubled = []
for c in counts:
    doubled.append(c * 2)
print(doubled)

# the one-liner
doubled = [c * 2 for c in counts]
print(doubled)

[4, 2, 6]
[4, 2, 6]

Read it as “c * 2 for each c in counts”. Same result, less typing.

`round` inside a comprehension

Any expression can go in front of the for, including round(). Loyalty pricing: 10% off, cleaned to two decimals:

drink_prices = [3.50, 3.20, 2.80]

print([p * 0.9 for p in drink_prices])            # raw floats, ugly
print([round(p * 0.9, 2) for p in drink_prices])  # rounded, clean

[3.15, 2.8800000000000003, 2.52]
[3.15, 2.88, 2.52]

The raw version leaks a 2.88000...3 float. Wrapping each price in round(_, 2) is the same thing we already used for money.

Looping over a dictionary

.items() hands you the menu as (key, value) pairs. Give the for two names and each pair is unpacked into them, like hour, minute = opening:

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20, "Ayran": 2.80}
for name, price in prices.items():
    print(name, price)

Mate 3.5
Spezi 3.2
Ayran 2.8

One name per slot, left to right. Two names, two slots.

Comprehensions build dictionaries

Swap the brackets for braces and give a key: value. Now you rebuild a whole menu in one line:

prices = {"Mate": 3.50, "Spezi": 3.20, "Ayran": 2.80}
loyalty = {name: round(price * 0.9, 2) for name, price in prices.items()}
print(loyalty)

{'Mate': 3.15, 'Spezi': 2.88, 'Ayran': 2.52}

The same name, price loop, now inside braces. The whole discounted menu, no loop body in sight.

Predict: the comprehension

What does this build?

nums = [1, 2, 3, 4]
print([n * n for n in nums])

a) [1, 4, 9, 16] b) [2, 4, 6, 8] c) [1, 2, 3, 4]

Predict. Pick a letter, then I reveal the answer.

Answer: square each item

nums = [1, 2, 3, 4]
print([n * n for n in nums])

[1, 4, 9, 16]

a) [1, 4, 9, 16]. The expression n * n runs once per item, so each number becomes its own square. 2 * n would double them; the bare n would just copy the list.

Predict: comprehension with filter

Some dishes sold nothing today. A comprehension can carry an if after the for. How long is the result?

counts = [2, 0, 3, 0, 1]
print([c * 2 for c in counts if c > 0])

a) [4, 0, 6, 0, 2] b) [4, 6, 2] c) [2, 3, 1]

Predict. Pick a letter, then I reveal the answer.

Answer: the `if` drops items

counts = [2, 0, 3, 0, 1]
print([c * 2 for c in counts if c > 0])

[4, 6, 2]

b) [4, 6, 2]. The if is a filter: items that fail it never reach the expression, so the result is shorter than the input. c * 2 still runs on the survivors, which rules out [2, 3, 1].

Your turn

Open the exercise

Scan the QR or type the link:

python.tobiasvlcek.com/notebooks/ex_04_e/

QR code linking to the online notebook for exercise 4e, the same address as the link above.

Any questions? Let me know!

To the Lab

After the break: the lab

Head to the lab notebook: Episode 4: The Menu Grows Up
You’ll rebuild the menu as a dictionary, count the regulars with a set, discount the card with a comprehension, and steer a lost courier through a nested campus map to the dorms
It runs entirely in your browser: no setup, just click and code

Download your .py before you leave. Closing the tab without downloading loses your work, and downloading is exactly how you hand in the checkpoints.

Wrap-up

Three things to remember

Lists hold many values in order: index from 0, count back with -1, slice with a stop that’s excluded
Dictionaries look up a value by its key; a missing key raises KeyError, so reach for .get() when it might not be there; sets keep each value once
Comprehensions fit a loop in one line: [expr for x in things] for lists, {k: v for ...} for dicts, round() welcome inside

Next time, Episode 5 starts with Checkpoint 2: 40 minutes, no AI, everything from Sessions III-IV. Then Tobi rewrites the checkout at 3 AM on four energy drinks. What could go wrong? We learn to read tracebacks and catch errors before the customer does.

Literature

Books to start with

Downey, A. B. (2024). Think Python: How to think like a computer scientist (Third edition). O’Reilly. Link to free online version
Elter, S. (2021). Schrödinger programmiert Python: Das etwas andere Fachbuch (1. Auflage). Rheinwerk Verlag.

Nothing new here, but these are still great books to start with!

For more, see the literature list of this course.

Lecture IV - Handling Data in more than one Dimension

EP 4: Menu Grows Up

Seventeen variables and counting

Warm-up

Question 1

Answer 1

Question 2

Answer 2

Question 3

Answer 3

Lists & Tuples

One name for many values

Reaching in by position

Counting from the end

Slicing: a range of items

Predict: where does the slice stop?

Answer: the stop index is excluded

Your turn

Open the exercise

Growing a list

Predict: the second name

Answer: two names, one list

How long is it?

Looping over positions

Tuples: fixed-length records

Your turn

Open the exercise

Dictionaries & Sets

Look things up by name

Building a dictionary

The key that isn’t there

A safer read with .get()

Predict: is it on the menu?

Answer: in checks the keys

Updating and adding

Predict: the missing drink

Answer: reading with []

Sets: only the unique ones

Your turn

Open the exercise

Nested Data

A dictionary inside a dictionary

Reading nested values

Your turn

Open the exercise

From a loop to one line

round inside a comprehension

Looping over a dictionary

Comprehensions build dictionaries

Predict: the comprehension

Answer: square each item

Predict: comprehension with filter

Answer: the if drops items

Your turn

Open the exercise

To the Lab

After the break: the lab

Wrap-up

Three things to remember

Literature

Books to start with

Answer: the `stop` index is excluded

A safer read with `.get()`

Answer: `in` checks the keys

Answer: reading with `[]`

`round` inside a comprehension

Answer: the `if` drops items